english-phonetics-and-phonology4-glossary, English phonetics and phonology 4th edition + CD
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//-->GLOSSARY – A LITTLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF PHONETICSThis reference material has had a varied life. It first appeared as one volume of a series oflittle books edited by David Crystal and published by Penguin; all the book titles beganwith ‘Introducing ...’, so this one was ‘Introducing Phonetics’. It was published in 1992, butnot long afterwards Penguin killed off the series. I claimed the copyright, and afterrevising the text I put it on my personal web-site at the University of Reading for generalaccess and gave it the title ‘A Little Encyclopaedia of Phonetics’ – this pretentious titlewith its archaic ‘ae’ spelling of ‘Encyclopaedia’ was intended as a joke. Many people toldme they used the book, but it was not easy to move from place to place in the text. Whenthe website for the Fourth Edition of myEnglish Phonetics and Phonologywas beingconstructed, my editorial colleagues at Cambridge University Press and I decided that animproved version of the Encyclopaedia would be a useful addition as a glossary oftechnical terms, and we now refer to the work as the Glossary. Anna Linthe of CUPconverted the HTML text that I had prepared into PDF form and made cross-referencingmuch easier. This became available to the public in 2009. More recently Małgorzata Deroń(Poznań) kindly offered to put the Glossary into a more up-to-date format using AdobeFlash, and at the same time proposed many improvements which I have been glad towelcome. I am very grateful to her for all the work she has put in, and I feel the Glossarynow looks and feels much better.I don’t know where this resource will go next. Some readers have asked if I would put in amore comprehensive coverage of theoretical phonology, but this field has never reallybeen an interest of mine and I would not be competent to attempt it. I would be verypleased to receive suggestions for new items if anyone would like to send them to me.Peter Roachp.j.roach@reading.ac.uk2English Phonetics and PhonologyABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPRSTUVWX© 2011 Peter RoachAAaccentˈæks ntəBCDEFGHIJKLMNOPRSThis word is used (rather confusingly) in two different senses:(1) accent may refer toprominencegiven to asyllable,usually by the use ofpitch.Forexample, in the word ‘potato’ the middle syllable is the most prominent; if you say theword on its own you will probably produce a fall in pitch on the middle syllable, makingthat syllable accented. In this sense,accentis distinguished from the more general termstress,which is more often used to refer to all sorts of prominence (including prominenceresulting from increasedloudness, lengthor sound quality), or to refer to the effort madeby the speaker in producing a stressed syllable.(2) accent also refers to a particular way of pronouncing: for example, you might find anumber of English speakers who all share the same grammar and vocabulary, butpronounce what they say with different accents such as Scots or Cockney, orBBCpronunciation.The word accent in this sense is distinguished fromdialect,which usuallyrefers to a variety of a language that differs from other varieties in grammar and/orvocabulary.acoustic phoneticsəˌkuːstɪk fəˈnetɪksAn important part ofphoneticsis the study of the physics of the speech signal: whensound travels through the air from the speaker’s mouth to the hearer’s ear it does so inthe form of vibrations in the air. It is possible to measure and analyse these vibrations bymathematical techniques, usually by using specially-developed computer software toproducespectrograms.Acoustic phonetics also studies the relationship between activity inthe speaker’svocal tractand the resulting sounds. Analysis of speech by acousticphonetics is claimed to be more objective and scientific than the traditionalauditorymethod which depends on the reliability of the trained human ear.active articulatorSeearticulator.ˌæktɪv ɑːˈtɪkjəleɪtəTUVWXGlossary3ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPRSTairflowUSeeairstream.VWX© 2011 Peter RoachAAdam’s appleˌædəmz ˈæp ləBCDEThis is an informal term used to refer to the pointed part of thelarynxthat can be seen atthe front of thethroat.It is most clearly visible in adult males. Moving the larynx up anddown (as in swallowing) causes visible movement of this point, which is in fact the highestpoint of the thyroidcartilage.advancedədˈvɑːntstFGHIJKLMNOPRSTTheInternational Phonetic Alphabetgives adiacritic[̟] for “advanced”, which makes itpossible to indicate that avowelis produced with thetonguefurther forward in the mouththan another vowel with which it may be compared. Thus [ɑ̟] indicates an advancedopenvowel that is further forward than [ɑ]. The term “advanced” is also used of the position ofthetongue root:in a number of the world’s languages there are pairs or sets of vowelswhich are said to differ from each other in that one vowel has the tongue root advanced(that is, moved forward) in relation to another vowel. Such a vowel is said to have thefeature Advanced Tongue Root (ATR). This is difficult to establish, and we have to usespecial equipment to demonstrate it.affricateˈæfrɪkətAn affricate is a type ofconsonantconsisting of aplosivefollowed by africativewith thesameplace of articulation:examples are theʧandʤsounds at the beginning and end ofthe English words ‘church’ʧɜːʧ,‘judge’ʤʌʤ(the first of these is voiceless, the secondvoiced).It is often difficult to decide whether any particular combination of a plosive plusa fricative should be classed as a single affricate sound or as two separate sounds, and thequestion depends on whether these are to be regarded as separatephonemesor not. It isusual to regardʧ, ʤas affricate phonemes in English (usually symbolisedč, ǰbyAmerican writers);ts, dz, tr, dralso occur in English but are not usually regarded asaffricates. The two phrases ‘why choose’waɪ ʧuːzand ‘white shoes’waɪt ʃuːzare said toshow the difference between theʧaffricate (in the first example) and separatetandʃ(inthe second).ˈeəfləʊUVWX4English Phonetics and PhonologyABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPRalveolarSTUVWX© 2011 Peter RoachAairstreamˈeəstriːmBCDEFGHIJKLMNOPRˌælviˈəʊləSBehind the upper frontteeththere is a hard, bony ridge called the alveolar ridge; the skincovering it is corrugated with transverse wrinkles. Thetonguecomes into contact with thisin some of theconsonantsof English and many other languages; sounds such ast, d, s, z,n, lare consonants with alveolarplace of articulation.TUVWXAll speech sounds are made by making air move. Usually the air is moved outwards fromthe body, creating anegressiveairstream; more rarely, speech sounds are made bydrawing air into the body – aningressive airstream.The most common way of moving airis by compression of thelungsso that the air is expelled through thevocal tract.This iscalled apulmonicairstream (usually an egressive pulmonic one, but occasionally speech isproduced while breathing in). Others are theglottalic(produced by thelarynxwith closedvocal folds;it is moved up and down like the plunger of a bicycle pump) and thevelaric(where thebackof thetongueis pressed against thesoft palate,orvelum,making an air-tight seal, and then drawn backwards or forwards to produce an airstream). Ingressiveglottalic consonants (often calledimplosives)and egressive ones (ejectives) are found inmany non-European languages;clicksounds (ingressive velaric) are much rarer, but occurin a number of southern African languages such as Nàmá, Xhosa and Zulu. Speakers ofother languages, including English, use click sounds for non-linguistic communication, asin the case of the “tut-tut” (American “tsk-tsk”) sound of disapproval.allophoneˈæləfəʊnCentral to the concept of thephonemeis the idea that it may be pronounced in manydifferent ways. In English (BBCpronunciation)we take it for granted that thersounds in‘ray’ and ‘tray’ are “the same sound” (i.e. the same phoneme), but in reality the twosounds are very different – therin ‘ray’ isvoicedand non-fricative, while thersound in‘tray’ is voiceless and fricative. In phonemictranscriptionwe use the samesymbolrforboth, but we know that the allophones ofrinclude the voiced non-fricative soundɹandthe voiceless fricative oneʂ.In theory a phoneme can have an infinite number of allophones, but in practice fordescriptive purposes we tend to concentrate on a small number that occur most regularly.alveolar ridgeSeealveolar.ˌælviˌəʊlə ˈriʤGlossary5ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPRSTUVWX© 2011 Peter RoachAalveolo-palatalˌælviəʊləʊ ˈpælət ləBCDEFGWhen we look at theplaces of articulationused by different languages, we find manydifferences in the region between the upperteethand the front part of thepalate.It hasbeen proposed that there is difference between alveolo-palatal and palato-alveolar thatcan be reliably distinguished, though others argue that factors other than place ofarticulation are usually involved, and there is no longer an alveolo-palatal column on theIPA chart.The former place is further forward in the mouth than the latter: the usualexample given for a contrast between alveolo-palatal and palato-alveolarconsonantsisthat of Polishɕandʃas in ‘Kasia’kaɕaand ‘kasza’kaʃa.ambisyllabicˌæmbisɪˈlæbɪkHIJKLWe face various problems in attempting to decide on the division of Englishsyllables:in aword like ‘better’betəthe division could be (using the.symbolto mark syllable divisions)eitherbe.təorbet.ə,and we need a principle to base our decision on. Some phonologistshave suggested that in such a case we should say that thetconsonantbelongs tobothsyllables, and is therefore ambisyllabic; the analysis of ‘better’betəis then that it consistsof the syllablesbetandtə.anteriorænˈtɪəriəMNOInphonologyit is sometimes necessary to distinguish the class of sounds that arearticulated in the front part of the mouth (anterior sounds) from those articulated towardsthe back of the mouth. All sounds forward of palato-alveolar are classed as anterior.əapicalˈæpɪk lPRSTConsonantal articulationsmade with thetipof thetongueare called apical; this term isusually contrasted withlaminal,the adjective used to refer to tongue-blade articulations.It is said that Englishsis usually articulated with the tongue blade, but Spanishs(when itoccurs before avowel)and Greeksare said to be apical, giving a different sound quality.approximantəˈprɒksɪməntUVWXThis is a phonetic term of comparatively recent origin. It is used to denote aconsonantwhich makes very little obstruction to theairflow.Traditionally these have been dividedinto two groups: “semivowels” such as thewin English ‘wet’ andjin English ‘yet’, whichare very similar toclose vowelssuch as [u] and [i] but are produced as a rapidglide;and
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