faa-h-8083-3a-2of7, PPL(A)
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P
URPOSE OF FLIGHT TRAINING
The overall purpose of primary and intermediate flight
training, as outlined in this handbook, is the acquisition
and honing of
basic airmanship skills.
Airmanship
can be defined as:
•
personal limitations and limitations of the airplane
and avoid approaching the critical points of each.
The development of airmanship skills requires effort
and dedication on the part of both the student pilot
and the flight instructor, beginning with the very first
training flight where proper habit formation begins
with the student being introduced to good operating
practices.
Asound acquaintance with the principles of
flight,
•
The ability to operate an airplane with compe-
tence and precision both on the ground and in the
air, and
Every airplane has its own particular flight characteris-
tics. The purpose of primary and intermediate flight
training, however, is not to learn how to fly a particular
make and model airplane. The underlying purpose of
flight training is to develop skills and safe habits that
are transferable to any airplane. Basic airmanship skills
serve as a firm foundation for this. The pilot who has
acquired necessary airmanship skills during training,
and demonstrates these skills by flying training-type
airplanes with precision and safe flying habits, will be
able to easily transition to more complex and higher
performance airplanes. It should also be remembered
that the goal of flight training is a safe and competent
pilot, and that passing required practical tests for pilot
certification is only incidental to this goal.
•
The exercise of sound judgment that results in
optimal operational safety and efficiency.
Learning to fly an airplane has often been likened to
learning to drive an automobile. This analogy is
misleading. Since an airplane operates in a different
environment, three dimensional, it requires a type of
motor skill development that is more sensitive to this
situation such as:
•
Coordination
—The ability to use the hands and
feet together subconsciously and in the proper
relationship to produce desired results in the air-
plane.
R
OLE OF THE FAA
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is empow-
ered by the U.S. Congress to promote aviation safety
by prescribing safety standards for civil aviation. This
is accomplished through the Code of Federal
Regulations (CFRs) formerly referred to as Federal
Aviation Regulations (FARs).
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)
part 61 pertains to the certification of pilots, flight
instructors, and ground instructors. 14 CFR part 61 pre-
scribes the eligibility, aeronautical knowledge, flight
proficiency, and training and testing requirements for
each type of pilot certificate issued.
14 CFR part 67 prescribes the medical standards and
certification procedures for issuing medical certificates
for airmen and for remaining eligible for a medical
certificate.
14 CFR part 91 contains general operating and flight
rules. The section is broad in scope and provides
general guidance in the areas of general flight rules,
visual flight rules (VFR), instrument flight rules
(IFR), aircraft maintenance, and preventive mainte-
nance and alterations.
•
Timing
—The application of muscular coordina-
tion at the proper instant to make flight, and all
maneuvers incident thereto, a constant smooth
process.
•
Control touch
—The ability to sense the action
of the airplane and its probable actions in the
immediate future, with regard to attitude and
speed variations, by the sensing and evaluation of
varying pressures and resistance of the control
surfaces transmitted through the cockpit flight
controls.
•
Speed sense
—The ability to sense instantly and
react to any reasonable variation of airspeed.
An airman becomes one with the airplane rather than
a machine operator. An accomplished airman
demonstrates the ability to assess a situation quickly
and accurately and deduce the correct procedure to
be followed under the circumstance; to analyze
accurately the probable results of a given set of cir-
cumstances or of a proposed procedure; to exercise
care and due regard for safety; to gauge accurately
the performance of the airplane; and to recognize
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Within the FAA, the Flight Standards Service sets the
aviation standards for airmen and aircraft operations in
the United States and for American airmen and aircraft
around the world. The FAA Flight Standards Service is
headquartered in Washington, D.C., and is broadly
organized into divisions based on work function (Air
Transportation, Aircraft Maintenance, Technical
Programs, a Regulatory Support Division based in
Oklahoma City, OK, and a General Aviation and
Commercial Division). Regional Flight Standards divi-
sion managers, one at each of the FAA’s nine regional
offices, coordinate Flight Standards activities within
their respective regions.
instructor certificates and associated ratings. All ques-
tions concerning pilot certification (and/or requests for
other aviation information or services) should be directed
to the FSDO having jurisdiction in the particular geo-
graphic area. FSDO telephone numbers are listed in the
blue pages of the telephone directory under United States
Government offices, Department of Transportation,
Federal Aviation Administration.
R
OLE OF THE PILOT EXAMINER
Pilot and flight instructor certificates are issued by
the FAA upon satisfactory completion of required
knowledge and practical tests. The administration
of these tests is an FAA responsibility normally
carried out at the FSDO level by FSDO inspectors.
The FAA, however, being a U.S. government
agency, has limited resources and must prioritize
its responsibilities. The agency’s highest priority
is the surveillance of certificated air carriers, with
the certification of airmen (including pilots and
flight instructors) having a lower priority.
The interface between the FAA Flight Standards
Service and the aviation community/general public
is the local Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).
[Figure 1-1] The approximately 90 FSDOs are
strategically located across the United States, each
office having jurisdiction over a specific geographic
area. The individual FSDO is responsible for all air
activity occurring within its geographic boundaries.
In addition to accident investigation and the
enforcement of aviation regulations, the individual
FSDO is responsible for the certification and sur-
veillance of air carriers, air operators, flight
schools/training centers, and airmen including pilots
and flight instructors.
In order to satisfy the public need for pilot testing and
certification services, the FAA delegates certain of these
responsibilities, as the need arises, to private individu-
als who are not FAA employees. A designated pilot
examiner (DPE) is a private citizen who is designated
as a representative of the FAA Administrator to perform
specific (but limited) pilot certification tasks on behalf
of the FAA, and may charge a reasonable fee for doing
so. Generally, a DPE’s authority is limited to accepting
applications and conducting practical tests leading to
the issuance of specific pilot certificates and/or ratings.
A DPE operates under the direct supervision of the
FSDO that holds the examiner’s designation file. A
FSDO inspector is assigned to monitor the DPE’s certi-
fication activities. Normally, the DPE is authorized to
conduct these activities only within the designating
FSDO’s jurisdictional area.
Each FSDO is staffed by aviation safety inspectors
whose specialties include operations, maintenance,
and avionics. General aviation operations inspec-
tors are highly qualified and experienced aviators.
Once accepted for the position, an inspector must
satisfactorily complete a course of indoctrination
training conducted at the FAA Academy, which
includes airman evaluation and pilot testing tech-
niques and procedures. Thereafter, the inspector must
complete recurrent training on a regular basis. Among
other duties, the FSDO inspector is responsible for
administering FAA practical tests for pilot and flight
The FAA selects only highly qualified individuals to
be designated pilot examiners. These individuals must
have good industry reputations for professionalism,
high integrity, a demonstrated willingness to serve the
public, and adhere to FAA policies and procedures in
certification matters. A designated pilot examiner is
expected to administer practical tests with the same
degree of professionalism, using the same methods,
procedures, and standards as an FAA aviation safety
inspector. It should be remembered, however, that a
DPE is not an FAA aviation safety inspector. A DPE
cannot initiate enforcement action, investigate acci-
dents, or perform surveillance activities on behalf of
the FAA. However, the majority of FAA practical tests
at the recreational, private, and commercial pilot level
are administered by FAA designated pilot examiners.
Figure 1-1. FAA FSDO.
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R
OLE OF THE FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR
The flight instructor is the cornerstone of aviation
safety. The FAA has adopted an operational training
concept that places the full responsibility for student
training on the authorized flight instructor. In this role,
the instructor assumes the total responsibility for train-
ing the student pilot in all the knowledge areas and
skills necessary to operate safely and competently as a
certificated pilot in the National Airspace System. This
training will include airmanship skills, pilot judgment
and decision making, and accepted good operating
practices.
observe all regulations and recognized safety practices
during all flight operations.
Generally, the student pilot who enrolls in a pilot training
program is prepared to commit considerable time,
effort, and expense in pursuit of a pilot certificate. The
student may tend to judge the effectiveness of the flight
instructor, and the overall success of the pilot training
program, solely in terms of being able to pass the
requisite FAA practical test. A good flight instructor,
however, will be able to communicate to the student
that evaluation through practical tests is a mere sam-
pling of pilot ability that is compressed into a short
period of time. The flight instructor’s role, however, is
to train the “total” pilot.
An FAA certificated flight instructor has to meet
broad flying experience requirements, pass rigid
knowledge and practical tests, and demonstrate the
ability to apply recommended teaching techniques
before being certificated. In addition, the flight
instructor’s certificate must be renewed every 24
months by showing continued success in training
pilots, or by satisfactorily completing a flight instruc-
tor’s refresher course or a practical test designed to
upgrade aeronautical knowledge, pilot proficiency,
and teaching techniques.
S
OURCES OF FLIGHT TRAINING
The major sources of flight training in the United States
include FAA-approved pilot schools and training cen-
ters, non-certificated (14 CFR part 61) flying schools,
and independent flight instructors. FAA “approved”
schools are those flight schools certificated by the FAA
as pilot schools under 14 CFR part 141. [Figure 1-2]
Application for certification is voluntary, and the school
must meet stringent requirements for personnel, equip-
ment, maintenance, and facilities. The school must
operate in accordance with an established curriculum,
which includes a training course outline (TCO)
A pilot training program is dependent on the quality of
the ground and flight instruction the student pilot
receives. A good flight instructor will have a thorough
understanding of the learning process, knowledge of
the fundamentals of teaching, and the ability to com-
municate effectively with the student pilot.
A good flight instructor will use a syllabus and insist
on correct techniques and procedures from the
beginning of training so that the student will develop
proper habit patterns. The syllabus should embody
the “building block” method of instruction, in which
the student progresses from the known to the
unknown. The course of instruction should be laid
out so that each new maneuver embodies the principles
involved in the performance of those previously
undertaken. Consequently, through each new subject
introduced, the student not only learns a new princi-
ple or technique, but broadens his/her application of
those previously learned and has his/her deficiencies
in the previous maneuvers emphasized and made
obvious.
The flying habits of the flight instructor, both during
flight instruction and as observed by students when
conducting other pilot operations, have a vital effect
on safety. Students consider their flight instructor to be
a paragon of flying proficiency whose flying habits
they, consciously or unconsciously, attempt to imitate.
For this reason, a good flight instructor will meticu-
lously observe the safety practices taught the students.
Additionally, a good flight instructor will carefully
Figure 1-2. FAA-approved pilot school certificate.
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approved by the FAA. The TCO must contain student
enrollment prerequisites, detailed description of each
lesson including standards and objectives, expected
accomplishments and standards for each stage of train-
ing, and a description of the checks and tests used to
measure a student’s accomplishments. FAA-approved
pilot school certificates must be renewed every 2 years.
Renewal is contingent upon proof of continued high
quality instruction and a minimum level of instructional
activity. Training at an FAA certificated pilot school is
structured. Because of this structured environment, the
CFRs allow graduates of these pilot schools to meet the
certification experience requirements of 14 CFR part
61 with less flight time. Many FAA certificated pilot
schools have designated pilot examiners (DPEs) on
their staff to administer FAA practical tests. Some
schools have been granted examining authority by the
FAA. A school with examining authority for a particu-
lar course or courses has the authority to recommend its
graduates for pilot certificates or ratings without further
testing by the FAA. A list of FAA certificated pilot
schools and their training courses can be found in
Advisory Circular (AC) 140-2,
FAA Certificated Pilot
School Directory
.
the FAA to publish practical test standards containing
the areas of operation and specific tasks in which
competence must be demonstrated. The FAA requires
that all practical tests be conducted in accordance with
the appropriate practical test standards and the policies
set forth in the Introduction section of the practical test
standard book.
It must be emphasized that the practical test standards
book is a testing document rather than a teaching doc-
ument. An appropriately rated flight instructor is
responsible for training a pilot applicant to acceptable
standards in all subject matter areas, procedures, and
maneuvers included in the tasks within each area of
operation in the appropriate practical test standard.
The pilot applicant should be familiar with this book
and refer to the standards it contains during training.
However, the practical test standard book is not
intended to be used as a training syllabus. It contains
the standards to which maneuvers/procedures on FAA
practical tests must be performed and the FAA policies
governing the administration of practical tests.
Descriptions of tasks, and information on how to
perform maneuvers and procedures are contained in
reference and teaching documents such as this
handbook. A list of reference documents is contained
in the Introduction section of each practical test stan-
dard book.
FAA-approved training centers are certificated under
14 CFR part 142. Training centers, like certificated
pilot schools, operate in a structured environment with
approved courses and curricula, and stringent standards
for personnel, equipment, facilities, operating proce-
dures and record keeping. Training centers certificated
under 14 CFR part 142, however, specialize in the use
of flight simulation (flight simulators and flight train-
ing devices) in their training courses.
Practical test standards may be downloaded from the
Regulatory Support Division’s, AFS-600, Web site at
. Printed copies of practical test
standards can be purchased from the Superintendent
of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC 20402. The official online bookstore
Web site for the U.S. Government Printing Office is
www.access.gpo.gov
.
F
LIGHT SAFETY PRACTICES
In the interest of safety and good habit pattern forma-
tion, there are certain basic flight safety practices and
procedures that must be emphasized by the flight
instructor, and adhered to by both instructor and student,
beginning with the very first dual instruction flight.
These include, but are not limited to, collision
avoidance procedures including proper scanning
techniques and clearing procedures, runway incursion
avoidance, stall awareness, positive transfer of
controls, and cockpit workload management.
The overwhelming majority of flying schools in the
United States are not certificated by the FAA. These
schools operate under the provisions of 14 CFR part
61. Many of these non-certificated flying schools offer
excellent training, and meet or exceed the standards
required of FAA-approved pilot schools. Flight
instructors employed by non-certificated flying
schools, as well as independent flight instructors, must
meet the same basic 14 CFR part 61 flight instructor
requirements for certification and renewal as those
flight instructors employed by FAA certificated pilot
schools. In the end, any training program is dependent
upon the quality of the ground and flight instruction a
student pilot receives.
P
RACTICAL TEST STANDARDS
Practical tests for FAA pilot certificates and associated
ratings are administered by FAA inspectors and desig-
nated pilot examiners in accordance with FAA-developed
practical test standards (PTS). [Figure 1-3] 14 CFR
part 61 specifies the areas of operation in which
knowledge and skill must be demonstrated by the
applicant. The CFRs provide the flexibility to permit
COLLISION AVOIDANCE
All pilots must be alert to the potential for midair
collision and near midair collisions. The general operat-
ing and flight rules in 14 CFR part 91 set forth the
concept of “See and Avoid.” This concept requires
that vigilance shall be maintained at all times, by
each person operating an aircraft regardless of
whether the operation is conducted under instrument
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Figure 1-3. PTS books.
flight rules (IFR) or visual flight rules (VFR). Pilots
should also keep in mind their responsibility for con-
tinuously maintaining a vigilant lookout regardless of
the type of aircraft being flown and the purpose of the
flight. Most midair collision accidents and reported
near midair collision incidents occur in good VFR
weather conditions and during the hours of daylight.
Most of these accident/incidents occur within 5 miles
of an airport and/or near navigation aids.
turns in opposite directions before executing any
training maneuver. Other types of clearing procedures
may be developed by individual flight instructors.
Whatever the preferred method, the flight instructor
should teach the beginning student an effective clear-
ing procedure and insist on its use. The student pilot
should execute the appropriate clearing procedure
before all turns and before executing any training
maneuver. Proper clearing procedures, combined
with proper visual scanning techniques, are the most
effective strategy for collision avoidance.
The “See and Avoid” concept relies on knowledge
of the limitations of the human eye, and the use of
proper visual scanning techniques to help compen-
sate for these limitations. The importance of, and
the proper techniques for, visual scanning should
be taught to a student pilot at the very beginning of
flight training. The competent flight instructor
should be familiar with the visual scanning and
collision avoidance information contained in
Advisory Circular (AC) 90-48,
Pilots’ Role in
Collision Avoidance
, and the
Aeronautical
Information Manual
(AIM).
RUNWAY INCURSION AVOIDANCE
A runway incursion is any occurrence at an airport
involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the
ground that creates a collision hazard or results in a
loss of separation with an aircraft taking off, landing,
or intending to land. The three major areas contribut-
ing to runway incursions are:
•
Communications,
•
Airport knowledge, and
•
Cockpit procedures for maintaining orientation.
There are many different types of clearing procedures.
Most are centered around the use of clearing turns. The
essential idea of the clearing turn is to be certain that
the next maneuver is not going to proceed into another
airplane’s flightpath. Some pilot training programs
have hard and fast rules, such as requiring two 90°
Taxi operations require constant vigilance by the entire
flight crew, not just the pilot taxiing the airplane. This
is especially true during flight training operations.
Both the student pilot and the flight instructor need to
be continually aware of the movement and location of
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